Stored urine coming from urine diverting sanitation systems (U.2, S.8, S.9) is a concentrated source of nutrients that can be applied as a liquid fertiliser in agriculture (to substitute chemical fertilisers) or as an additive to enrich compost.Decomposed organic matter that results from a controlled aerobic degradation process. In this biological process, microorganisms (mainly bacteria and fungi) decompose the biodegradable waste components and produce an earth-like, odourless, brown/black material. Compost has excellent soil-conditioning properties and a variable nutrient content. Because of leaching and volatilisation, some of the nutrients may be lost, but the material remains rich in nutrients and organic matter. Generally, excreta or sludge should be composted long enough (2 to 4 months) under thermophilic conditions (55 to 60 °C) in order to be sanitised sufficiently for safe agricultural use.Consists of urine and faeces that are not mixed with any flushwater. Excreta is relatively small in volume, but concentrated in both nutrients and pathogens. Depending on the characteristics of the faeces and the urine content, it can have a soft or runny consistency.Refers to (semi-solid) excrement that is not mixed with urine or water. Depending on diet, each person produces approximately 50–150 L per year of faecal matter of which about 80 % is water and the remaining solid fraction is mostly composed of organic material. Of the total essential plant nutrients excreted by the human body, faeces contain around 39 % of the phosphorus (P), 26 % of the potassium (K) and 12 % of the nitrogen (N). Faeces also contain the vast majority of the pathogens excreted by the body, as well as energy and carbon rich, fibrous material.Mixture of solids and liquids, containing mostly excreta and water, in combination with sand, grit, metals, trash and/or various chemical compounds. A distinction can be made between faecal sludge and wastewater sludge. Faecal sludge comes from on-site sanitation technologies, i.e. it has not been transported through a sewer. It can be raw or partially digested, a slurry or semisolid, and results from the collection and storage/treatment of excreta or blackwater, with or without greywater. Wastewater sludge (also referred to as sewage sludge) originates from sewer-based wastewater collection and (semi-)centralised treatment processes. The sludge composition will determine the type of treatment that is required and the end-use possibilities.The liquid produced by the body to rid itself of nitrogen in the form of urea and other waste products. In this context, the urine product refers to pure urine that is not mixed with faeces or water. Depending on diet, human urine collected from one person during one year (approx. 300 to 550 L) contains 2 to 4 kg of nitrogen. The urine of healthy individuals is sterile when it leaves the body but is often immediately contaminated by coming into contact with faeces.Describes technologies for on-site collection, storage, and sometimes (pre-) treatment of the products generated at the user interface. The treatment provided by these technologies is often a function of storage and is usually passive (i.e. requires no energy input), except a few emerging technologies where additives are needed. Thus, products that are ‘treated’ by these technologies often require subsequent treatment before use and/or disposal. In the technology overview graphic, this functional group is subdivided into the two subgroups: “Collection/Storage” and “(Pre-)Treatment”. This allows a further classification for each of the listed technologies with regard to their function: collection and storage, (pre-) treatment only or both.Refers to the methods through which products are returned to the environment, either as useful resources or reduced-risk materials. Some products can also be cycled back into a system (e.g. by using treated greywater for flushing).A functional group is a grouping of technologies that have similar functions. The compendium proposes five different functional groups from which technologies can be chosen to build a sanitation system:
User interface (U), Collection and Storage/Treatment (S), Conveyance (C), (Semi-) Centralised Treatment (T), Use and/or Disposal (U).
A sanitation system is a multi-step process in which sanitation products such as human excreta and wastewater are managed from the point of generation to the point of use or ultimate disposal. It is a context-specific series of technologies and services for the management of these sanitation products, i.e. for their collection, containment, transport, treatment, transformation, use or disposal. A sanitation system comprises functional groups of technologies that can be selected according to context. By selecting technologies from each applicable functional group, considering the incoming and outgoing products, and the suitability of the technologies in a particular context, a logical, modular sanitation system can be designed. A sanitation system also includes the management and operation and maintenance (O & M) required to ensure that the system functions safely and sustainably. Simple, single cell organisms that are found everywhere on earth. They are essential for maintaining life and performing essential “services”, such as composting, aerobic degradation
of waste, and digesting food in our intestines. Some types, however, can be pathogenic and cause mild to severe illnesses. Bacteria obtain nutrients from their environment by excreting enzymes that dissolve complex molecules into more simple ones which can then pass through the cell membrane.

The process by which biodegradable components are biologically decomposed by microorganisms (mainly bacteria and fungi) under controlled aerobic conditions.
The utilisation of products derived from a sanitation system.
Any cellular or non-cellular microbiological entity capable of replication or of transferring genetic material (e.g. bacteria, viruses, protozoa, algae or fungi).
Any substance that is used for growth. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are the main nutrients contained in agricultural fertilisers. N and P are also primarily responsible for the eutrophication of water bodies.
A sanitation system in which excreta and wastewater are collected and stored or treated on the plot where they are generated.
An organism or other agent that causes disease.A diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms, including amoeba, ciliates, and flagellates. Some can be pathogenic and cause mild to severe illnesses.
The means of safely collecting and hygienically disposing of excreta and liquid
wastes for the protection of public health and the preservation of the quality of public water bodies and, more generally, of the environment.

Waste matter that is transported through the sewer.
An open channel or closed pipe used to convey sewage. See C.3 and C.4
The organic molecule (NH2)2CO that is excreted in urine and that contains the nutrient nitrogen. Over time, urea breaks down into carbon dioxide and ammonium, which is readily used by organisms in soil. It can also be used for on-site faecal sludge treatment. See. S.18An infectious agent consisting of a nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) and a protein coat. Viruses can only replicate in the cells of a living host. Some pathogenic viruses are known to be waterborne (e.g., the rotavirus that can cause diarrheal disease).
Used water from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff/stormwater, and any sewer inflow/infiltration.

Urine contains most of the nutrients excreted by the body. Soluble substances in urine include essential plant nutrients such as the macro nutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) as well as smaller quantities of micro nutrients such as boron (B), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn). The nutrients in urine are in a form readily available to plants, similar to ammonia and urea based fertilisers, and with comparable results on plant growth. The World Health Organization guidelines recommend that urine is stored for at least one month before being used in agriculture at the household level. In larger systems, storage times should be longer (up to six months). Urine from healthy people is considered free of pathogens. For fully grown individuals there is nearly a mass balance between nutrient consumption and excretion. The nutrient content in urine is dependent on diet, sex, climate, water intake, time of the day when excreted etc. Roughly 88 % of N, 61 % of P and 74 % of K excreted by the human body is in urine.

Design Considerations

Stored urine should not be applied directly to plants due its high pH. Instead, it can be applied directly to the soil before planting, by pouring into furrows or holes at a sufficient distance away from plant roots and immediately covered, or it can be diluted several times, and used frequently on plants as a general fertiliser. A good availability of nutrients is particularly important in the early stages of cultivation. Once crops enter their reproductive stage they adsorb few nutrients. Fertilisation should therefore stop after to ¾ of the time between sowing and harvest. The optimal application rate depends on N demand, the tolerance of the crops and N concentration in the (diluted) urine. The annual urine volume from one person is sufficient to fertilise around 300–400 m2 of cropland. There is no standard recommendation for dilution and existing recommendations vary widely (usually between ratios of 1:3 to 1:10). The advantages of dilution are a noticeable odour reduction and a decreased risk of over-application. At the same time dilution increases the total volume and thus labour and transport needs. Diluted urine can also be used like any fertiliser in (drip) irrigation systems, commonly referred to as “fertigation”.

Materials

Materials needed include sufficient closed containers to store urine for one month or more, agricultural equipment to dig furrows and holes and watering pots or (drip) irrigation devices. People involved in using urine in agricultural production should be provided with personal protective equipment such as shoes, gloves and masks.

Applicability

Urine Application is not considered a priority in acute emergencies, but might be an option during the stabilisation and recovery phases provided it is acceptable to the local population and farmers have an interest in using urine as a fertiliser. Urine fertilisation is ideal for rural and peri-urban areas where agricultural lands are close to the point of urine collection. Households can use urine on their own plot of land or if facilities and infrastructure exist, urine can be collected at a semi-centralised location for distribution and transport to agricultural land. Stored urine has a relatively strong odour and can be offensive to work with. If urine is diluted and immediately tilled into the soil the odour can be reduced.

Operation and Maintenance

Over time, some minerals in urine will precipitate (e.g. calcium and magnesium phosphates). Equipment that is used to collect, transport or apply urine (e.g. watering cans with small holes) can thus clog over time. Most deposits can easily be removed with hot water and a little weak acid, such as vinegar.

Health and Safety

Urine poses a minimal risk of infection, especially when stored for an extended period, however urine should be carefully handled and a waiting period of one month between fertilisation and harvest should be respected. Urine should be applied close to the ground, thus reducing the possibility of direct contact with the edible parts of plants. As an additional safety measure, urine use could be restricted to non-food crops (flowers), crops that are processed or cooked before consumption (e.g. eggplant), or crops or trees that allow for a minimum distance between the soil and harvested part of the crop (e.g. all kinds of fruit trees). As hormones and pharmaceuticals are partly excreted with urine, there is a small possibility that these will be adsorbed by plants and enter the human food chain. This risk is however minimal when compared to the risks associated with the pharmaceuticals in animal manure, pesticide use or the direct discharge of untreated wastewater into water bodies.

Costs

The costs for urine application are low. However, urine application can be labour intensive and land availability could be an issue. If urine needs to be transported over longer distances, transport costs might be considerable and not always economically viable as urine has a relatively low value per volume. However, urine fertilization could offer livelihood opportunities, improved yields and the potential to substitute costly chemical fertilisers with a readily available product.

Social Considerations

The potential application of urine in agriculture should be discussed with the affected communities beforehand. Regular training or orientation may be needed in order to support acceptance, ensure proper application and to avoid accidental misuse.